Research Designs and Research Proposal

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Research Designs

• refer to the way in which the investigator plans and structures the research process
• the design provides flexible guideposts that keep the research headed in the right direction
• Qualitative - one in which the investigator plans to observe, discover, describe, compare and analyze the characteristic attribute, themes and underlying dimensions of a particular unit
• Qualitative - concerned with measuring the magnitude, size or extent of a phenomenon
• Descriptive-Exploratory - observes, describes, explores and assembles new knowledge
• Documentary-Historical - the investigator examines records and documents already in existence, major sources of data include official and unofficial documents, statistics, audiovisual media and general historical data

• Experimental - the investigator has maximum control over the selection and assignment of subjects to different experimental conditions
1. True Experimental - maintains maximum and rigorous control through the use of both random sampling to select subjects and manipulation to manage the independent variable
2. Quasi-Experimental - lacks full experimental control over the scheduling of experimental stimuli, but does have the ability to introduce random exposure into data collection procedures
3. Non-Experimental - under this we have the following:
• Exploratory Survey - relies heavily upon verbal self-reports. One the most widely utilized research designs, it combines interviews and questionnaires with a special form of statistical data analysis
• Ex-Post Facto (After the Fact) - the investigator examines the effect of the events that happened in the past
• Correlational or Associational - looks for patterns of variation between two or more phenomena such as smoking  and cancer
• Secondary Analysis of Data - uses large sets of data, such as census material, for a re-analysis from a new perspective. Data sets available include the world population data, data from private and public agencies etc.
• Needs Assessment - a combination of a number of different designs including the survey, correlational, ex-post-facto, descriptive and historical. The objective is to collect, document and summarize information by various summarized information by various organizations, persons and communities.
• Evaluation - the investigator evaluates or judges the success of a nursing practice, policy or program in terms of intended outcomes or in terms of consequences of practices, policies or programs
• Methodological - a plan to study the methods and instructions used in research - all methods are studied, analyzed and results of such methods are detailed to see which ones are effective and which ones are not

How to Critique a Paper:

1. See if the problem statement is clear and measurable
2. Check if the review of literature cited is exhaustive enough on the topic
3. Check on the clarity of the conceptual framework/paradigm
4. Are the variables clear and distinct? Statistics appropriate?
5. Is the relationship appropriate for the problem? Are conclusions clear?

How to Make a Research Proposal

• the research proposal is a product of assiduous reading, refining of the problem and identification of the sets of variables to be worked on
• it is the 50% of the work done
• start working on your proposal at your first course and gradually develop your problem and method

Steps in Making a Thesis or Research Proposal

• Start by conceiving a problem that bothers you in the work situation; or a problem that you desire to find solution; other problems that you think you can shed more light in terms of improvement, enhancement, or a theory you want to ground, etc.
• Then go into library research on the topic of drug addiction and possible determinants such as peer influence, curiosity, frustration, broken families, etc. In other words, you more or less guess the possible factors. You go into research for this because you want to determine whether what you have hunched are true with the situation or you may find other factors. Utilize all sorts of observation, cases, news publication - exhaust literature review on the topics, use CD-ROM, Internet, journals, seminars, etc.
• Formulate your conceptual or theoretical framework. You can do this by gathering all the authorities or theories you have read which you think will be the support or the answer to your guesses about the factors of drug addiction. Hypotheses are declarative statements that show relationships of the variables under study. They provide some sort of an answer to your problem posed in question form.
• Next, design your methodology. Decide whether your study will utilize the experimental or non-experimental design. It is experimental if you are introducing a certain variable to one group and no variable to another group. Use study group versus control group when you study people rather than calling them experimental group.
• Instrumentation: Construct your tools or instruments in order to gather the data according to the variables you want to measure in your study.
• Prepare the listing of your bibliography alphabetically in the order of books, journals and other materials. Consult library catalogues to have the appropriate and correct format of bibliographic entries. Use the Publication Manual, APA 4th edition for bibliographical entry.
• Present this to the adviser and once approved, your thesis is half done. The thesis or research proposal contains all together the first three chapters plus the bibliography and the appendixes which contain your tools.

Methods of Instrumentation

• Instrumentation is the process of constructing your tools and having them validated so that they will yield the significant results of your research
• Several methods culled from literature review can be restored to such as:
1. Using Standardized Test - this is very expensive because you have to buy the rights of the instrument, Example psychological tests, attitudinal tests, etc.
2. Constructing your own content in questionnaire or checklist - this is tedious because you need to do pre-testing to validate its content and do item analysis to refine the tool. Most thesis instruments are of this type.
3. Interview-Schedule - you frame out before hand the content of the interview and design in sequential form for easy delivery of probing or delving into the topic. This is common in most survey non-experimental designs
4. Delphi Technique - you use paper and pencil and observe several times on the same phenomenon
5. Shadowing Technique - you follow in shadow manner the subject to gather behavior, manner, etc. this is observation without being known as observer
6. Observation-Participation Technique - you live in the area and be a participant in the situation in order to gather data. This is used in studies that deal with anthropological and sociological nature. You can devise your own instrument combining all these.

Process of Data Gathering

• Data gathering is the most tedious part of thesis or research
• expensive if you use research assistants to gather data for you
• if you know how to gather data, you can save a big sum of money
• Steps to economize and stratify data gathering:
1. Utilize existing records, evidences - use resources within your reach, such as your own staff, your friends or relatives to do this portion of the research for you. All you have to do is direct and train them well.
2. Choose and easy relevant and meaningful problem that will not entail laborious methods of data gathering
3. Construct simple designs - and choose convenient venues. Befriend inhabitants of the place you project to gather data.
4. Plan the place, sample, method and tool as well
5. Gather your own data to facilitate analysis later on. Do not rely on others to do this for you except when you are too busy to do this. Interview should be done on a very friendly basis:
• Do not include very personal, embarassing questions
• Be extremely polite and respect their views
• Use sweet moderate tone of your voice
• Appear approachable and humble

Sampling Scheme

1. Fishbowl Lottery Draw - each element or number placed in a container is given equal chance to be drawn
2. Stratified Clustered Sampling Scheme - you stratify a place and then you designate a cluster or bunch of houses or respondents and you target that as the sample. This is done systematically.
3. Pure Number Random - you have a table of random numbers and you randomly point or indicate the respondent with closed eyes or with tombola machine, or you may flip coins, etc.
4. Snowball Sampling - someone knows someone and then you continue to roll on the acquaintances until the required number of a sample is reached having the pre-set criteria characteristics
5. Purposive or Convenience Sampling - this is also known as the opportunistic sampling. Any one who comes who bear the desired criteria is taken as the respondent of the study. This is lazy type of sampling scheme.
6. Odd-Even Matching Scheme - this is also known as the alternative type of sampling. You can designate all those who come in even numbers as the Control Group and all those with odd numbers as the Experimental Group. The condition must be met that both even and odd numbered individual possess same criteria. They must have matching characteristics.
7. A combination of any of the above sampling scheme this is called the revised eclectic type of sampling - sampling is derived in such a manner that any one or two of the schemes are combined to gather data

Tools in Data-Gathering

1. Interviews and questionnaires
2. Checklists
3. Semantic differentials
4. Response alternatives
5. Multiple choice summary
6. Rating scales e.g. Likert
7. Grit e.g. Guttman tool
8. Interval scores
9. Attitudinal scores (Normed)
10. Personality scores (Standardized)
11. Intelligence score
12. Projective test scores

Steps in Tool/Schedule Construction

1. Preliminary Decisions - decide on what form you want the instrument to be
2. Drafting the tool/schedule - make a blueprint for the content of the tool
3. Revising and pretesting
4. Administration of the Instrument - distribution or administration of the tool to individual or groups
5. Collecting of questionnaire data
6. Clearing of Sample - replacement of what is lost through insufficient number of respondent gathered

Processing of Data Collected

• The demographic information characteristics will have to be manually tallied and entered into dummy tables
• Frequencies can either be done manually or fed into the computer
• Interpretation of data takes into account the investigator's skills, knowledge, attitudes and perceptions about the issues for which the research project is oriented to

Fundamentals of Statistics in Research

• The hypotheses dictate that statistical treatment of the data must be done in consonance with the problem, design, tool and within the framework of the conceptual paradigm
• You do not need to know to solve the statistical computation because this is now efficiently done by computers with programs
• All you have to bear in mind is that statistics give the significance of the data and will make your stand stronger and more scientifically supported

Statistical Treatment

• For experimental designs, you have a choice of
1. Two-tailed T-test to compare average means of the groups
2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
3. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
4. Pearson Product Moment Correlation
5. Stepwise Regression Analysis (Curve or Linear)
6. Factorial Analysis
• For the non-experimental design (specifically indicated in the survey type of research) you have a choice of:
1. Chi-square
2. Mean average
3. Averages
4. Duncan's test
5. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
6. Split half analysis
7. Multiple stepwise regression
8. Wilcoxon
9. F-test; 2-test
10. Mann Whitney
11. Freidman's test
12. Point Biserial
• Guides when to use the proper statistical treatment to types of studies:
• For Experimental Designs - you have the choice of:
1. Two-Tailed T-test to compare average means of the groups
2. ANOVA or analysis of variance
3. ANCOVA or analysis of co-variance
4. Pearson Product moment
5. Stepwise regression analysis (curve or linear)
6. Factorial analysis
• For the non-experimental design this is specifically indicated in the survey type of research, etc., you have a choice of:
1. Chi-square
2. Mean average
3. Averages
4. Duncan's test
5. Split half analysis
6. Multiple stepwise regression
7. Other non-parametric tests
8. Point biserial
• On the terms of reliability, validity:
1. Reliability - is a term used in research tools when the instrument can measure accurately and effectively measures what it supports to quantify. It is reliable in terms of results overtime and over situations
2. Validity - the instrument attains its level of validity when it can stand the test or rigors of trials, and regardless of population, and situations, the content of the instrument holds true for all without giving ways to biases or one-sidedness

Clearing of Data

• This phase is at the end of the data gathering when the investigator is about to write the final draft of the study
• It is the counter checking of the computer entries, checking of the tables of the figures, of the required sample
• This is the time left for completing all the incompleteness of data gathering
• In other words, this is the final check point before you embark on writing of the report
• It includes also the settlement of unpaid accounts owed to research assistants , consultants, etc

As a general rule, writing the report must be very personal because each person has his/her own way of expressing what is felt and what is analyzed.  However, it can be standardized by the following pointers in writing:

1. Write short, simple, clear, active sentences
2. Avoid using long phrases that beat around the bush
3. When writing, equip yourself with a thesaurus and a dictionary
4. Use clear, modern, contemporary words and expressions so that readers will easily understand
5. Outline your thoughts and be systematic
6. Document all your readings for easy retrieval of documentation later on
7. Use proper punctuation marks, but do not abuse its use
8. Avoid using too many quotation marks, translate the thoughts into your own understanding
9. Never copy other's works - you will be caught in the standards of academic works in the National Library Content Control Department and when found guilty, you can be sued for plagiarism and the degree will be taken away plus the closure of the school where one came from
10. Ask the help of a professional academician to check and edit your work if you feel not sure of your expressions
11. Write your thoughts in a live manner - that is, as if you are telling the story in a live manner. This will attract readers to read your work
12. Use clear fonts, 12, laser prints and substance 22 white page

Parts of the Thesis or Dissertation Book

• The thesis or dissertation book which is the culmination of an academic completion of a degree carries an assurance of academic competence
• Hence, it is a sacred thing, not only because it has passed the rigors of academic exercises, but because it is a product of your labor, brain, emotions and your very own self
• The main parts are divided into five chapters described as:
• Chapter 1: The PROBLEM
1. Introduction
2. Statement of the Problem
3. Objectives
4. Significance of the Study
5. Scope and Delimitation/Limitation
6. Operationalization of Terms
• Chapter 2: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1. Review of Related Literature
2. Studies - related to your topic
3. Summary of Literature Reviewed
4. Conceptual Framework
5. Conceptual Paradigm
6. Statement of Hypotheses
• Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY
1. Design of the Study
2. Description of the Locals or Venue of the Study
3. Sampling Scheme
4. The Instruments
5. Procedures in Data Gathering
6. Statistical Treatment of Data
7. Research Flow Chart
• Chapter 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
1. Present this accordingly based on your topic
2. Presentation of Data in Tables and Figures with Qualitative Description
3. Discussion of Data Findings
• Chapter 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION and RECOMMENDATION
1. Summary
2. Conclusion and Implications
3. Recommendation
4. Bibliography - arranged alphabetically
5. Appendixes - numbered according to sequence